Frequently Asked Questions
Each Treaty Era is distinct. Pre-confederation, Confederation and “Modern” were negotiated in similar contexts (often aligning with moments in Canadian nation-building) and have similar terms. They can even be thought of as a “type” of treaty, with their nature and scope distinguishing them from treaties in other eras.
The Treaty Map takes 1763 as the formal commencement of Canadian Treaties. The Royal Proclamation’s stipulations created a (somewhat) organized process that has been loosely followed into the present. While we have included some notable pre-1763 treaties, most are not covered by the Treaty Map.
Much of the research on pre-confederation treaties includes phonetic spelling of, primarily Anishinaabe names. To the extent possible, we have updated those names with modern Anishinaabemowin spelling. As for place-names, this is a work in progress. We have included some but aim to include more as work on The Treaty Map continues.
In some cases, especially with pre-confederation era treaties, payments, annuities or the value of gifts were recorded. But they were done so in a currency system that may no longer exist (e.g. Halifax or Nova Scotia Pound). We have converted these figures to Canadian dollars (CAD), accounting for inflation. In other words, the monetary values in Treaty descriptions represent the value of the transaction in CAD, if that currency existed at the time of treaty.
There are a few instances where treaties were negotiated under a pre-existing framework agreement (Yukon Umbrella), or, where a group of treaties were later consolidated into a “basket” (Williams Treaties). While difficult to represent on the map we hope the descriptions make the distinction between the “group” and specific treaty clear. Finally, Canada has always resisted notions of overlapping or shared Indigenous territories – it was far more common than the Map depicts and the lack of overlap is a reflection of a colonial approach to treaty making generally.
As we mention in the disclaimer, treaties are complex and span Canadian history, meaning there are multiple interpretations through time. In our research, we included the perspectives of documented Indigenous people, including negotiators, on the original spirit and intent of treaties (as well as contemporary Indigenous perspectives). But we do not strive for a universal perspective.
Since 1763, Canada has sought to eliminate Indigenous forms of land tenure; reducing Indigenous title and rights using concepts like surrender, cede and extinguish. These concepts are central to Canadian narratives of treaties. But the Map attempts to offer Indigenous narratives, which challenge the philosophy and practice of “surrender” and re-centre relationality and mutual autonomy.
Historic treaties require legal obligations of Canada and are routinely the subject of litigation and ongoing land claims and calls for Canada to honour the spirit of treaties. The Treaty Map aims to demonstrate that even the oldest treaty in Canada still has relevance today. Meanwhile, “modern” treaties are still being negotiated. So the short answer is yes.
The Royal Proclamation is considered a constitutional source; treaty rights are recognized by Section 35 of the constitution, and “Modern” Treaties are constitutionally protected. In this sense, treaties are among the “highest law in the land” and challenge Canadian federalism and sovereignty. Despite this constitutional status, treaties are routinely ignored, erased, or mal-interpreted by Canadian government lawyers and policy-makers.
Most Canadians have limited relationships to treaties. They are typically not a part of the public discourse and the Crown is expected to fulfill obligations on behalf of Canadians. However, those who live in a specific treaty area benefit from the land and resources shared in that treaty. Treaties, then, require reciprocity from Canadians as well as governments.
As you’ll note in the treaty descriptions, Métis are mentioned in a handful of cases. However, Métis have not negotiated a specific “Métis” Treaty. Instead, they negotiated scrip, which is very difficult to graphically represent on the Map. We have included Métis diplomacy under the entry for the Manitoba Act.
The Proclamation – and subsequent 1764 “Twenty-Four Nations-Belt” negotiated at Niagara – marked a turning point, from Indigenous-led treaty making to a new framework established by the English following their defeat of the French in The Seven Years War. The Proclamation empowered England but simultaneously recognized Indigenous land rights, compelling treaties. This complicated transition is captured in Michelle’s Sound’s “Proclamation” artwork, featured on The Treaty Map site. Learn more about this art piece on the About page.
The Treaty Map is meant to be accessible. As such, each entry is a short, high level overview. Books are written about many treaties and we can’t capture it all here (the bibliography can offer further independent research). Our approach aimed to cover the context, terms, and implementation. However, if you feel there is an inaccuracy in a description, please write to us and we’ll take it into consideration!
The Treaty Map includes a description of every treaty in Canada between 1763 to the present. This Map goes beyond identifying treaty land, and includes research on Indigenous perspectives, challenging Canadian narratives and adding a new dimension to existing maps.
In response to feedback from users as well as new research, court decisions, new treaties, etc., Yellowhead will update the content of the Map periodically. We also hope to add additional treaty-specific education resources over the course of 2025.
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